“On-Farm and Wild Trees: Prospecting for Commercial
Products”
May 20 –24, 2002. Pretoria, South Africa
Authors:
Pratt, J.H. (MAFE),
Henry, E.M.T. PhD (University of Malawi: Chancellor
College Chemistry Department),
Mbeza, H.F. (University of Malawi: Bunda College of Agriculture, Department of
Engineering), and
Mlaka, E. (Enterprise Development and Training
Agency (NGO))
Contact:
Marketing &
Enterprise Program for Natural Resource-based Products
Malawi Agroforestry Extension (MAFE) Project
Malawi Government - USAID - Washington State University
P.O. Box 2440,
LILONGWE, Malawi
Top Floor, New
Building Society Complex, Old Town, Lilongwe
Direct line: 265
752834; Switchboard 265 757090/092
Cellphone: 265 938152
Fax: 265 757095/098
“On-Farm and Wild Trees: Prospecting for Commercial
Products”
KEYWORDS: characterization; market; oil; products;
seed.
MAFE launched a Marketing and Enterprise
Program (MEP) in 2000 to investigate, research, pilot, select and promote
production and marketing of natural plant products (NPPs) with the view to
enhancing rural incomes and the adoption of natural resources management (NRM)
practices. The partners in this program include:
Enterprise Development and Training Agency (EDETA),
an indigenous NGO,
BCM Moringa Oil Refiners’ Association
(BCMMORA), a female producers’ registered association and
University of Malawi Agricultural Engineering
and Chemistry Departments
The partnership closely collaborates with the
Malawi Bureau of Standards and three overseas laboratories and corresponds with
other NPP research and promotion groups worldwide. Until early 2002 the MEP
principally comprised adaptive research. It is now evolving into a program of
product characterization and market probing.
MEP research and development and test
marketing aim to provide the genesis of one or more community-private sector
partnerships that sustainably exploit under-utilized agroforestry and wild
plant strategic species.
Eight
strategic species has been selected. Seven share potential as sources of seed
oils for various subsistence/food security and commercial applications and, in
some cases, offer interesting by-products and/or plant extracts of
pharmacological interest. MAFE’s work on these species is also relevant to
Mozambique and Zambia.
Most effort is directed towards Moringa (Moringa oleifera) which is a
naturalized, fast-growing homestead/hedgerow species for which a rich
bibliography has been traced.
Investigations
are in progress to determine how the valuable ‘pre-investment’ research and
development of the partnership may evolve nationally and/or regionally when
MAFE closes in mid-2002.
“On-Farm and Wild Trees: Prospecting for Commercial Products”
KEYWORDS: characterization; market; oil; products; seed.
MEP research and development
and test marketing aim to provide the genesis of one or more community-private
sector partnerships that sustainably exploit under-utilized agroforestry and
wild plant species.
MAFE is
carrying out market research and has undertaken technical development and
economic analysis that, besides fulfilling project objectives, could benefit
future workers in the field of NPP development in Mozambique and Zambia. The socio-economic implications of the work
in progress at MAFE could be overwhelmingly beneficial and are centered on the
potential to generate rural income from under-exploited existing tree resources
and, once proven, to promote new tree planting.
Industry
Constraints
With the exception of traditional medicinal
practitioners/herbalists, the number of gatherers/producers in Malawi involved
in commercialization of NPPs is small.
Identified constraints of producers include:
Ø lack of
information on the products, uses and markets of endemic species;
Ø lack of
organization and resources to carry out respective investigations and research;
and
Ø difficulty to
mobilize and coordinate gathering of NPPs (specifically tree seeds) in a timely
manner.
The main constraints of
local processors include:
Ø lack of
information on the potential commercial applications of local species; and
Ø difficulty to change
production processes from systems based on repackaging of imported
semi-finished products (mostly from Zimbabwe and South Africa), to systems
involving process chemistry and the blending of raw materials.
MAFE market investigations follow three principal thrusts:
·
Assessment of Malawi’s comparative advantage to supply respective NPPs,
including chemical isolates/fractions, that are already traded nationally,
regionally and internationally;
·
Determination of the opportunities for Malawi NPPs to replace and
compete with other products in trade – by virtue of similarity of physical and
chemical properties;
·
Reporting on the means of compliance with national regulatory/safety
standards in the more promising markets.
The species and their uses
Species and their potential
products have been scrutinized according to the following selection criteria
devised by MAFE and its partners. Each strategic
species and its product(s) should ideally have multi-purpose applications
and:
1. Have sizeable
potential national and regional markets;
2. Be of interest to
two or more regional countries, where cross-border trade can be analyzed, and
possibly (at a suitable scale of production[ii])
have international market potential;
3. Have significant
local subsistence or commercial use (so they shall still be of interest to
producers if market conditions were temporarily poor);.
4. Allow production
and processing operations that are technically and economically feasible on a
small or medium scale (i.e. determined as requiring capital investment of
$30,000 or less);
5. Be widely grown
or abundant, at least locally, allowing rapid production response to market
promotion without depletion of the
species.
Special favor is shown to
plants that offer:
6. Benefits in
addition to commercial development, such as food security, soil fertility or
conservation, or wood supply;
7. Production and
processing opportunities/synergies with potential to increase value added
within existing farming systems; and/or
8. Early maturity,
and are already promoted by MAFE for NRM purposes.
Literature review, internet searching and
advice from sources worldwide, including University of Malawi past and present
researchers, led to MAFE investigations and research focusing on oil-bearing
on-farm tree species.
The “best-bet” potential NPP short-term commercial opportunities[iii]
identified by MAFE concern applications in cosmetics either as stable carrier
oils (for fragrances) and/or for skincare where tree oils’ natural
anti-oxidants, especially tocopherols, and polyunsaturated fatty acids are
considered beneficial.
Other possible opportunities for the
utilization of tree oils indicated by literature and personal advice include:
lubricants and
lubricant additives,
leather-making
(to improve ‘run’),
polishes,
soap-making,
anti-feedants/insecticides,
and
oils
blending/upgrading.
Medicinal, pesticide and anti-feedant
applications are being investigated but the work involved in their research and
commercialization is necessarily of a long-term
nature beyond the immediate objectives of the project. Comprehensive inquiries
into the formal commercial market scope of plant-based medicines would be
better delegated to other organizations and/or a new project.
A total of eight strategic species has been selected, including Tephrosia (Tephrosia vogelii). This is a favored
leguminous under-sown fallow crop/inter-crop shrub recommended by MAFE for
addressing soil fertility and mulch deficits. It exhibits a number of pesticide
and pharmacological properties attributed to active principles including the
rotenoids deguelin, tephrosin and alpha-toxicarol. Most of the work on
Tephrosia has been delegated to foreign laboratories and MAFE’s contribution to
research is regarded as a small step in a wider international effort to
increase knowledge about the potential applications of this plant.
The other
seven species share potential as sources of seed oils for various
subsistence/food security and commercial applications and, in some cases, offer
interesting by-products and/or plant extracts:
Species Main season of seed drop
African
Star-Chestnut (Sterculia africana) Jul - Oct
Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) Apr
– Jun
Manketti (Schinziophyton rautanenii) Apr
- May
Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) Jun – Jul
Moringa (Moringa oleifera) Sep
– Dec
Natal Mahogany (Trichilia emetica) Jan
– Mar
Neem (Azadirachta indica) Dec
– Jan
Three of the species are naturalized
introductions that have been cultivated for several plant generations and are
sometimes self-sown. These are
Jatropha, Neem and the lowland, early-maturing
species Moringa. A rich bibliography has been traced for all of these species.
Moringa was the subject of extensive previous
research in Malawi. It has importance as a food-security vegetable crop and living
fence, particularly in the poorest communities in the South. Moringa oil
contains natural anti-oxidants – tocopherols
- that contribute to Vitamin E deposition in the human body and may be
considered beneficial both as food and for skincare. Literature and personal
advice, principally from India, suggests that this oil, besides having economic
potential in cosmetic applications, could have importance as a non-toxic
high-stress, high-temperature lubricant or lubricant additive. This requires
specialized inquiries in the lubricants manufacturing industry and utilization
of MAFE stocks for testing[iv].
The native species Manketti, Marula and Natal
Mahogany are rarely cultivated. Mostly they occur as wild trees and, although
some have become enclosed by farm settlement, they should essentially be
regarded as exploited by “gathering” instead of cultivation. Manketti and Natal
Mahogany are commonest in the North of Malawi but, unlike Marula, not much has
been written about these species.
African Star-Chestnut is best known as a wild
species in the Southern Lakeshore. There is very little literature on this
species. Like Moringa, it is planted as ‘truncheons’ to make live fences,
notably in the South. Initial results of laboratory analysis indicate that, as
this tree’s oil is especially rich in Vitamins E and F, it could have potential
for skincare.
Apart from review of literature from India
and elsewhere, little progress has been made in exploring applications of Neem
oil in Malawi. Prompted by results of a recent MAFE field survey, Washington
State University is conducting a focused investigation of Neem’s traditional
medicinal uses, especially use of leaves in the treatment of digestive
ailments.
Small quantities of oil from Baobab (Adansonia digitata) are traded
internationally for cosmetic use. If work on tree oils were to continue in
Malawi, the seeds of this species could be tested for oil production.
Product
opportunities
Novel Products
Some NPPs with important traditional uses
identified by the MAFE and its partners as being of possible commercial
potential are not cited in known literature and are so novel that they are not
traded anywhere. They are being carefully characterized to determine their full
biochemical properties, and although MAFE is already carrying out market
investigations, it will not introduce samples to the trade until their full
chemistry has been determined. The species concerned and their respective
properties of interest are:
African Star-Chestnut (Sterculia africana): tocopherols and polyunsaturated fatty acids;
Manketti (Schinziophyton
rautanenii): tocopherols and trienoic fatty acid isomers; and
Natal Mahogany (Trichilia emetica): fat separation/fractionation and toxic
principles in seed coat.
Known
product possibilities
A total of 140
potential products from the strategic species have been identified from
literature and interviews but since their identification stems mostly from
experimental data and reports on traditional uses, much further work, including
characterization, is required to determine their suitability for
commercialization and export development. A few such products are already
traded and these include:
Oil in
Zimbabwe and West Africa for soap making and as a lamp fuel;
Oil in Zimbabwe for leather making.
Comment:
investigation of soap-making in Zimbabwe based on Jatropha oil revealed that
the industry is static and not experiencing growth that was anticipated by its
promoters; there are major raw material supply problems.
Fresh fruits for local marketing, also
extensively used in subsistence;
Alcoholic beverages made by traditional
methods;
Oil, exported from South Africa and Namibia to Europe cosmetics manufacturer(s)
since 2001, also extensive food use of Marula kernels in subsistence.
Comment: a wealth of knowledge on the
character and commercial applications of Marula oil exists in Namibia and South
Africa. Efforts are being made to gain access to this information
Leaf powder in West Africa as a commercial dietary supplement, and use of
leaves, flowers and green pods locally in Malawi in subsistence cooking;
Minor international sales of Moringa oil from
Africa for cosmetic use. Expressions of interest received by MAFE from four
foreign cosmetic manufacturers’ buyers. Minor use of the oil in subsistence
cooking.
Leaves and seeds in Malawi sold as anti-feedants/insecticides for local crop
storage, but mostly used in subsistence for this purpose and for treatment of
stomach ache;
Oil in
India for soap-making;
Proprietary seed and leaf limonoid extracts in India as anti-feedants/insecticides;
Timber in
India for construction and furniture making and in Nigeria for charcoal making. Timber in Malawi for construction
and brick-kilning.
Natal Mahogany
Apart from historical description of its use
in Mozambique and Tanzania as a source of commercial soapstock, no current
commercial use has been found for Natal
Mahogany in Malawi. The seed’s oily aril is extensively used in subsistence
cooking. The seed exhibits various potential commercial applications, notably
use of the kernel oil as a wood polish, for which curio makers have reported to
MAFE favorably, and possible use of the aril.
One
MAFE staff member covers the MEP on a full-time basis. MAFE turned to other
organizations for practical assistance in implementation of the program. Most
of the technical development carried out has been commissioned under
institutional collaboration agreements that include elements of Contract Research. Concerned Malawian
institutions accordingly retain the experience and institutional memory from
their involvement.
In February 2001 an indigenous NGO, Enterprise Development and
Training Agency (EDETA), joined MAFE in
its NPP R & D to assist market research, monitoring and supervision of
adaptive research trials and respective economic analysis. The trials included
raw material supply and processing with active involvement of communities.
EDETA is also involved in initiatives to utilize NPPs from National Parks and
Wildlife Reserves.
BCM Moringa Oil Refiners’ Association (BCMMORA), a female producers’ registered
association, became the principal raw material procurement and processing
partner and a key player in adaptive research.
MAFE
and EDETA established productive collaboration with two colleges of the
University of Malawi, i.e. Chancellor College Chemistry Department and Bunda
College of Agriculture Engineering Department.
Malawi
Bureau of Standards (MBS) was commissioned to test production samples and to
advise on the means of attaining acceptable quality in accordance with MBS
Standards. There are a number of other Malawi institutions and associations
that could contribute to product development and detailed assessment of
species, their identification and their silviculture/agronomy.
Three overseas laboratories
are assisting the partnership.
Following up on earlier work of Malawi
Industrial Research and Technology Development Centre and Chitedze Agricultural
Research Station, the Engineering Department of Bunda College of Agriculture
has established the technical feasibility and costs of tree seed oil extraction
by manual pressing and by motorized expeller. Under arrangements with MAFE it
has additionally carried out significant reconfiguration and performance
improvement of manual ‘ram’ presses and a Sundhara Sayari (Tanzania) expeller.
The results of this work are being presented by Mr Henry F. Mbeza.
Results
of economic analysis
Owing to costs
of production, tree oils from the strategic species cannot compete either as
edible substitutes for imported/local soya and sunflower oils and imported palm
oils, or as paint oils and commercial soapstock.
In Malawi
‘paint oil’ costs about K40/liter ($0.53/liter @ R.O.E 75:1) and semi-refined
sunflower oil from local seed is sold by various factories at about K87/liter
($1.16/liter); presscake is a by-product. This is also the case for the
industry in Tanzania.
Taking the
local price of semi-refined sunflower oil as a ‘benchmark’, MAFE and its
partners have found it necessary to investigate higher specification uses for
the tree oils (as suggested by the literature) and are also investigating
possible by-products. Jatropha, which offers a non-edible oil, is a possible
exception as the opportunity cost of seeds in Malawi could be lower than for
other seeds. Jatropha oil might be available at K180/liter ($2.40/liter) but
oils from the other tree seeds cost more to produce, typically at a direct cost of about K250/liter
($3.33/liter). Under experimental monitoring it has been demonstrated that when
processing tree seeds on manual presses, producers seldom exceed 15% oil
extraction (by weight) although yields in excess of 20% are possible with
traditional oilseeds such as sunflower.
Current
efforts are directed to :
Ø full
characterization of potential ‘products’ (by overseas laboratories);
Ø generation of a
database of national, regional and international market information for the
respective products;
Ø Documentation of
program activities, results and recommendations.
With the prospect of project closure in
mid-2002, no new production activities are planned. Investigations are in
progress to determine how the valuable ‘pre-investment’ research and
development of the partnership may evolve when MAFE closes.
Discussion
and conclusions
Oils of Moringa and African Star-Chestnut
appear to have potential in the cosmetic market.
Further extraction trials and assay are
required to determine the possibilities for commercialization of oils from
Manketti and Natal Mahogany.
The principal achievements of MAFE’s MEP are:
Ø Restoration,
further development and maintenance of an effective plant oils research and
development partnership among Malawian institutions;
Ø Industry/historical
analysis, market analysis and market probing;
Ø Economic analysis
of supply chains and opportunity costs;
Ø Social
organization and effective liaison with producer communities and local
industry;
Ø Physical and
chemical characterization of potential
products through reliance on local expertise and support from overseas
specialized laboratories;
Ø In-field testing,
assessment and improvement of potential NPP processing systems – specially
engineering research conducted by Bunda College of Agriculture (separate paper);
Ø Supervision of
quality control and initiation of the process of development of product
Standards to achieve compliance with Malawi Bureau of Standards and
international market regulatory and safety procedures;
Ø Networking and,
through the MAFE Resource Center,
ability to promote new technology;
Ø Building
institutional memory among partners and documentation of results.
Allam, S.S.H.
2001. Utilization of some untraditional sources of high oleic acid oils for
improving vegetable oils stability. Food Technology Research Institute, Giza.
La Revista Italiana de Sostanze Grasse. Vol LXXVIII. Giugno 2001.
Becker, K. 1998.
Investigation of the Roles of Lectin and Phorbol Esters in Causing Jatropha
Curcas Toxicity, and Detoxification of Jatropha Meal from a Toxic Variety
Using Heat and Chemical Treatments. University of Hohenheim Institute for
Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics. Stuttgart.
Becker, K. 1998.
Some Analyses of Jatropha, Moringa and Algai Samples to Understand their
Potential as Animal Feed. University of Hohenheim Institute for Animal
Production in the Tropics and Subtropics. Stuttgart.
Bennett, R. 2001
& 2002. personal communication: glucosinolates in Moringa oleifera.
Bunderson, W.T.,
Bodnar, F., Bromley, W.A. and Nanthambwe, S.J. 1995. A Field Manual for
Agroforestry Practices in Malawi. Malawi Agroforestry Extension Project.
Publication No. 6. Lilongwe.
Burger, A.E.C., de
Villiers, J.B.M., & du Plessis, L.M. (1987). "Composition of the
kernel oil and protein of the marula seed." South African Journal of Science Vol. 83 November / December, 733 -
5.
Coote C, Stewart M, Bonongwe 1997. . The Distribution,
Uses and Potential for Development of Moringa
Oleifera in Malawi Forestry Research Record No. 67. Forestry
Research Institute of Malawi, Zomba.
Du Plessis, L.
1988. Fruitful future for marula oil. Scientiae 4: 15 – 16
Faizi, S.,
Siddiqui, B.S., Saleem, R.,Siddiqui, S., Aftab, K. and Gilani, A.H. 1994.
Isolation and structure elucidation of new nitrile and mustard oil glycosides
from Moringa oleifera and their
effect on blood pressure. J Nat Prod. 1994 Sep;57(9):1256-61.
Foidl, N., Makkar,
H.P.S. and Bekker, K. 2001. The Potential of Moringa oleifera for Agricultural and Industrial Uses. Presentation
at the Moringa Products Workshop, Dar Es Salaam. PROPAGE/CWS/CDE/CTA.
Folkard, G.K. and Sutherland, J.P. 1996. Moringa oleifera –
a multipurpose tree and a litany of potential. Agroforestry Today, Vol 8, No.
3, pp 5 –8.
Fuglie, L.J. ed.
2001. The Miracle Tree. The Multiple Attributes of Moringa. Technical Centre
for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA: ACP-EU) and Church World Service,
Dakar.
Fuglie, L.J. 2001.
Combating Malnutrition with Moringa. Presentation at the Moringa Products
Workshop, Dar Es Salaam. Church World Service, Dakar.
Grundy, I and
Campbell, B.m. 1993. Potential Production and Utilisation of oil from Trichilia
spp. Economic Botany 47: pp148 -153.
Heller, Joachim.
1996.Physic Nut. Jatropha curcas L.
Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 1.
Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International
Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. ISBN 92-9043-278-0.
Henning, R. 2000. The Jatropha Booklet. A Guide to the
Jatropha System and its Dissemination in Zambia. GTZ-ASIP Support Project
Southern Province. bagani GbR.
Henry EMT, Makiyi EF, Masamba WR 1999. Report on Extraction, Purification and
Stability of Oil from Moringa Olifera seeds. Zomba: University of Malawi.
Jahn, S.A.A. 1981. Traditional Water Purification in
Tropical Developing Countries- Existing Methods and Potential Application. Publ
117 Deutsche Gesellschaft fur
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn
Koné, S.
(undated). How to Make Better Soap. GTZ, Eschborn.
Kunkwezu, E.P.H.
and Chilembwe, D.B. 1998. Preliminary Evaluation of the Performance of the Ram
Press Using Moringa and Jatropha Seed. Farm Machinery Team. Chitedze
Agricultural Research Station/PROSCARP Project Management Unit, Lilongwe
Le Poole, H.A.C.
1996. Behen Oil: A classic oil for modern cosmetics. Cosmetics and Toiletries
Magazine, January, pp 77 – 79./ 1995 report to Jan Dekker International, 10p.
Lombard, C. 2001
& 2002. personal communication.
Machell, K.. 1997.
The Extraction, Properties and Potential of Oil of Moringa – Behen Oil.
Presentation at The World Bank Workshop on Development of the Multi-Purpose
Tree – Moringa oleifera.
Blantyre 17 – 18 June 1997.
Mander, M. 1998.
Marketing of Indigenous Medicinal Plants in South Africa – A Case Study in
Kwazulu-Natal. FAO, Rome
MBS 1988. MBS
51:1988 Edible Oils General Standard. Blantyre: Malawi Bureau of Standards.
Mekonnen, Y.,
Yardley, V., Rock, P. and Croft, S. 1999. In vitro antitrypanosomal activity of
Moringa stenopetala leaves and roots.
Pytother Res. 1999 Sep;13(6):538-9.
Mwanyambo, M.L. and Nihero, D.A. 1998. Medicinal Plants and
Biodiversity (Malawi) Project. Final technical Report. International
Development Research Centre, Canada
National Research Council USA 1992. Neem a Tree for Solving Global Problems. A
Report of an Ad-hoc Panel of the Board on Science and Technology for Technology
for International Development. Washington: National Academy Press. (Ed: Vietemeyer, N.D.)
Ndabigengesere, A., Narasiah, K.S. and Talbot, B. 1994.
Active Agents and Mechanism of Coagulation of Turbid Waters using Moringa oleifera. University of Sherbrooke,
Quebec
Palgrave, K.C. 1997. Trees of Southern Africa. Capetown: Struik publishers (Pty) Ltd.
Pretorius, V.,
Rohwer, E., Rapp, A., Holtzhausen, L.C. and Mandery, H. 1985. Volatile flavour
components of marula juice. Z. Lebensm. Unters. – Forsch. 181, 458 – 461.
Rossell, J.B.
(Ed.) 1999. Oils and Fats Volume 1. Vegetable Oils and Fats. LFRA Limited.
SAFIRE. 2000.
Regional Natural Products Development Initiative. Discussion Paper. SAFIRE,
Harare.
de Saint Sauveur,
A. 2001. Moringa Exploitation in the World: State of Knowledge and Challenges.
Presentation at
the Moringa Products Workshop, Dar Es Salaam. PROPAGE/CWS/CDE/CTA.
De Silva, T. and Raina, K. 1996. Fact Finding and
Preparatory Assistance to Assess the Potential and Prepare a Plan of Action for
the Industrial Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Malawi. UNIDO.
Schmutterer H, Ascher KRS 1987. Natural Pesticides
from the Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica
A. Juss) and other Tropical Plants.
Sutherland JP, Folkard GK and Grant WD 1989. Seeds of
Moringa Species as Naturally Occuring Flocculants for Water Treatment Science, Technology & Development 7 (3) 191-197.
Tsaknis, J., Lalas, S., Gergis, V. and Spiliotis, V.
(1998). A Total Characterisation of Moringa Oleifera Malawi seed oil, La Rivista Italiana Sostanze Grasse, 75 (1), 21-27.
van’t Riet, S.
2000. The Moringa Tree – a Miracle Tree. Horticulture in Malawi. Vol. 3, No. 3,
2001, pp. 12 – 15. Horticultural Development Organisation of Malawi.
Von Teichman, I.
(1982). "Notes on the Distribution, Morphology, Importance and Uses of the
Indigenous Anacardiaceae: 1. The Distribution and Morphology of Sclerocarya birrea (the Marula)." Trees in South Africa, Oct. - Dec., 35 -
41.
Von Teichman, I.
(1983). "Notes on the Distribution, Morphology, Importance and Uses of the
Indigenous Anacardiaceae: 2. The Importance and Uses of Sclerocarya birrea (the Marula)." Trees in South Africa 35: Apr. - Sept., 1 - 7.
Warndorff, J. and
T. 2001. personal communication.
Wegmersghaus, R. and Oliver, G. 1980. Jatropha curcas L. In Zimbabwe. Grower’s Handbook. Plant Oil and
Engineering Development Group Pvt Ltd (POEDG), Harare.
Weinert, I.A.G.,
van Wyk, P.J., & Holtzhausen, L.C. (1990). "Marula" in
"Fruits of tropical and subtropical origin" Eds. S. Nagy, P.E. Shaw
& W.F. Wardowski. Lake Alfred, Florida Science Source.
Williamson J.
1975. Useful Plants of Malawi. Zomba: University of Malawi.
End Notes
[i] In February 2002, the National Forestry Research Committee of Malawi decided that the Malawi Forestry Research agenda for 2002 –2005 should provide enhanced status to non-timber tree products and give attention to income generation from on-farm trees.
[ii] International market development demands
the building of critical momentum of production and accumulation of product
stocks (Green CL, pers. comm.) beforehand. Such prerequisites may best be met
by first of all building a successful business based on local/regional markets,
where product use may not necessarily be the same as that foreseen in the
international market.
[iii] Since development and marketing of tree fruits is the subject of detailed project investigations of SADC-ICRAF under a BMZ/GTZ regional program, this subject is not being pursued by MAFE.
The following
long-term pure research activities are considered necessary and relevant to
Moringa’s commercialization:
Ø
As a
follow-up to overseas research being conducted on MAFE plant materials,
pharmacological (anti-cancer and hypotensive) properties of Moringa seeds, bark
and roots also, simultaneously, Natal Mahogany bark and roots;
Ø
Polyelectrolyte
protein extraction from seeds/seed presscake for flocculant water treatment (PhytoflocTM proprietary research of Optima of Africa Ltd,
Tanzania);
Ø Formulation of animal feeds from Moringa
presscake with examination of feasibility of phytase treatment in mono-gastric animal rations.